Central nervous system disorders | Vascular |
Ischaemic/haemorrhagic stroke, AV malformations, temporal arteritis Infections |
Encephalitis, meningitis, brain abscess, neurosyphilis, subphrenic abscess Structural |
Head trauma, intracranial neoplasms, brainstem neoplasms, multiple sclerosis, syringomyelia, hydrocephalus |
|
Vagus and phrenic nerve irritation | Goitre, pharyngitis, laryngitis, hair or foreign-body irritation of tympanic membrane, neck cyst or other tumour |
|
Gastrointestinal disorders | Gastric distention, gastritis, peptic ulcer disease, pancreatitis, pancreatic cancer, gastric carcinoma, abdominal abscesses, gallbladder disease, inflammatory bowel disease, hepatitis, aerophagia, oesophageal distention, oesophagitis, bowel obstruction |
|
Thoracic disorders | Enlarged lymph nodes secondary to infection or neoplasm, pneumonia, empyema, bronchitis, asthma, pleuritis, aortic aneurysm, mediastinitis, mediastinal tumours, chest trauma, pulmonary embolism |
|
Cardiovascular disorders | Myocardial infarction, pericarditis |
|
Toxic–metabolic | Alcohol | Diabetes mellitus |
Herpes zoster | Hypocalcaemia |
Hypocapnia | Hyponatraemia |
Influenza | Malaria |
Tuberculosis | Uraemia |
|
Postoperative | General anaesthesia | Gastric distention |
Intubation (stimulation of glottis) | Traction on viscera |
Neck extension (stretching phrenic nerve roots) | |
|
Drugs | Alpha methyldopa | Dexamethasone |
Short-acting barbituates | Diazepam |
Chemotherapeutic agents (for example, carboplatin) | |
|
Psychogenic | Anorexia nervosa | Malingering |
Conversion reaction | Schizophrenia |
Excitement | Stress |