Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: A review

doi:10.1016/j.dr.2011.01.001

Developmental Review

Volume 30, Issue 4, December 2010, Pages 367-383

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2011.01.001 Get rights and content

Abstract

This review briefly summarizes recent empirical research on touch. The research includes the role of touch in early development, touch deprivation, touch aversion, emotions that can be conveyed by touch, the importance of touch for interpersonal relationships and how friendly touch affects compliance in different situations. MRI data are reviewed showing activation of the orbitofrontal cortex and the caudate cortex during affective touch. Physiological and biochemical effects of touch are also reviewed including decreased heart rate, blood pressure and cortisol and increased oxytocin. Similar changes noted following moderate pressure massage appear to be mediated by the stimulation of pressure receptors and increased vagal activity. Increased serotonin and decreased substance P may explain its pain-alleviating effects. Positive shifts in frontal EEG also accompany moderate pressure massage along with increased attentiveness, decreased depression and enhanced immune function including increased natural killer cells, making massage therapy one of the most effective forms of touch.

Research highlights

► The role of touch in early development, touch deprivation, touch aversion. ► Emotions can be conveyed by touch. ► The importance of touch for interpersonal relationships. ► Friendly touch affects compliance in different situations.

Introduction

Touch has been referred to as the fifth sense and the least researched of the senses (Montagu, 1971). In his seminal book called Touching, Montagu raised many questions about the role of touch, mostly in communication and across cultures. In a more recent book called Touch an attempt was made to address some of these questions raised by Montagu (Field, 2001). The current review primarily summarizes research published between 2001 and the date of this publication. Brief summaries are provided on studies on the role of touch in early development including touch deprivation and touch aversion, on touch in communication including emotions and personal relationships, on physiological and biochemical effects of touch, on massage therapy effects on various conditions including prematurity, pain, attentiveness, depression and immune function and on virtual reality touch.

Section snippets

Touch in early development

The skin is the oldest and the largest of our sense organs, and the first to develop (Field, 2001, Montagu, 1971). The fetus experiences touch by being suspended in amniotic fluid and receiving tactile stimulation through the mother’s abdominal wall, typically showing this by increased activity (Dieter et al., 2003, Lagercrantz and Changeux, 2009). The newborn continues to receive significant stimulation through being cuddled and breastfed. This caregiving touch is not only essential for growth

Touch in social interaction

Touch can be used to convey different emotions, not unlike facial and vocal expressions (Elfenbein & Ambady, 2002). Although the communication of emotion via touch might facilitate social interactions, the public display of interpersonal touch appears to vary across cultures (Field, 2001).

Virtual reality touching devices

Several devices have recently been developed to provide tactile contact. For example, the “keep in touch” system was designed for couples to have physical intimacy across distances (Motamedi, 2007). This fabric touch screen presents a blurred image of each partner, and when the partner touches various parts of the body, the image is brought into focus. However, the “keep in touch” system was never tested for its effectiveness. Similarly, a number of hugging devices have been created. One is

Friendly touching affects compliance

Several investigators have documented how positively people respond to touch in different situations. The participants or customers in these observational studies are typically more responsive to requests if they are accompanied by friendly touch. People are more likely to give someone something if they are touched at the same time that the request is made (Joule & Gueguen, 2003). For example, when passengers touch a bus driver while requesting a free ride, they are more likely to get a free

Neural bases for encoding touch

The right orbitofrontal cortex appears to be involved in encoding tactile information (Frey Law et al., 2008). Positron Emission Tomography has been used to measure brain activity related to the encoding of tactile stimuli. Cerebral blood flow during novel stimuli was compared to cerebral blood flow during aversive tactile stimuli. The right orbitofrontal cortex was involved in the act of encoding the novel tactile stimuli while the region of the orbitofrontal cortex that is more closely

Physiological and biochemical effects of touch

Several studies have documented positive physiological and biochemical effects of touching including decreases in blood pressure and heart rate as well as decreased cortisol levels and increased oxytocin levels (Heinrichs et al., 2003, Henricson et al., 2008). Decreased cortisol (stress hormone) and increased oxytocin (“love hormone” or hormone that increases following touch in both animals and humans) may be related, although they are rarely measured simultaneously in the same study.

Lower

Massage therapy effects

Massage therapy is one of the most effective forms of touch. It has been used primarily to treat pain, although it is increasingly used for other problems including job stress, depression, autoimmune conditions like asthma, dermatitis and diabetes and immune conditions, most especially cancer (see Field, Diego, & Hernandez-Reif, 2006 for a review).

Summary, conclusions, implications and future directions

Acknowledgments

This research was supported by a merit Award (MH46586), NIH Grants (AT00370 and HD056036), and Senior Research Scientist Awards (MH00331 and AT0011585) and a March of Dimes Grant (12-FY03-48) to Tiffany Field and funding from Johnson and Johnson Pediatric Institute to The Touch Research Institute.

References (112)

T.A. Ahles et al.
Massage therapy for patients undergoing autologous bone marrow transplantation
The Journal of Pain and Symptom Management
(1999)
H.T. Chugani et al.
Local brain functional activity following early deprivation: A study of postinstitutionalized Romanian orphans
Neuroimage
(2001)
D. Corbetta et al.
Seeing and touching: The role of sensory-motor experience on the development of infant reaching
Infant Behavior and Development
(2009)
M. Diego et al.
Temperature increases in preterm infants during massage therapy
Infant Behavior and Development
(2008)
B. Ditzen et al.
Effects of different kinds of couple interaction on cortisol and heart rate responses to stress in woman
Psychoneuroendocrinology
(2007)
S.G. Ferber et al.
The development of maternal touch across the first year of life
Early Human Development
(2008)
T. Field et al.
Vagal activity, early growth and emotional development
Infant Behavior and Development
(2008)
T. Field et al.
Prenatal depression effects on the fetus and the newborn
Infant Behavior and Development
(2004)
T. Field et al.
Preterm infant massage therapy research: A review
Infant Behavior and Development
(2010)
T. Field et al.
Tai chi/yoga effects on anxiety, heartrate, EEG and math computations
Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice
(2010)

T. Field et al.

Moderate versus light pressure massage therapy leads to greater weight gain in preterm infants

Infant Behavior and Development

(2006)

T. Field et al.

Massage therapy for infants of depressed mothers

Infant Behavior and Development

(1996)

T. Field et al.

Massage reduces anxiety in child and adolescent psychiatric patients

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

(1992)

L.A. Frey Law et al.

Massage reduces pain perception and hyperalgesia in experimental muscle pain: A randomized, controlled trial

Journal of Pain

(2008)

S. Guest et al.

Sensory and affective judgments of skin during inter-and intrapersonal touch

Acta Psychological Amsterdam

(2009)

M. Heinrichs et al.

Social support and oxytocin interact to suppress cortisol and subjective responses to psychosocial stress

Biological Psychiatry

(2003)

M. Hernandez-Reif et al.

Differential sucking by neonates of depressed versus non-depressed mothers

Infant Behavior and Development

(2004)

M. Hernandez-Reif et al.

High blood pressure and associated symptoms were reduced by massage therapy

Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies

(2000)

M. Hernandez-Reif et al.

Breast cancer patients have improved immune functions following massage therapy

Journal of Psychosomatic Research

(2004)

E. Herrera et al.

Maternal touch and maternal child-directed speech: Effects of depressed mood in the postnatal period

Journal of Affective Disorders

(2004)

M.S. Kim et al.

Effects of hand massage on anxiety in cataract surgery using local anesthesia

Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery

(2001)

S.M. Kubsch et al.

Effect of cutaneous stimulation on pain reduction in emergency department patients

Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery

(2000)

K. Light et al.

More frequent partner hugs and higher oxytocin levels are linked to lower blood pressure and heart rate premenopausal woman

Biological Psychology

(2005)

P. Montoya et al.

Affective modulation of somatosensory-evoked potentials elicited by tactile stimulation

Brian Research

(2006)

R.J. Moszkowski et al.

Touching behaviors of infants of depressed mothers during normal and perturbed interactions

Infant Behavior and Development

(2009)

M. O’Higgins et al.

Postnatal depression and mother and infant outcomes after infant massage

Journal of Affective Disorders

(2008)

V. O’Keane et al.

Changes in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis measures after vagus nerve stimulation therapy in chronic depression

Biological Psychiatry

(2005)

Y. Ouchi et al.

Changes in cerebral blood flow under the prone condition with and without massage

Neuroscience Letters

(2006)

J. Pauk et al.

Positive effects of tactile versus kinesthetic or vestibular stimulation on neuroendocrine and ODC activity in maternally-deprived rat pups

Life Sciences

(1986)

P. Bach-y-Rita

Tactile sensory substitution studies

Annals of the New York Academy of Science

(2004)

C. Beckett et al.

Do the effects of early severe deprivation on cognition persist into early adolescence? Findings from the English and Romanian adoptees study

Child Development

(2006)

C.V. Bellieni et al.

Sensorial saturation for neonatal analgesia

Clinical Journal of Pain

(2007)

J. Brittenden et al.

Natural killer cells and cancer

American Cancer Society

(1996)

M. Diego et al.

Preterm infant massage elicits consistent increases in vagal activity and gastric motility that are associated with greater weight gain

Acta Pediatrica

(2007)

M.A. Diego et al.

Massage therapy of moderate and light pressure and vibrator effects on EEG and heart rate

International Journal of Neuroscience

(2004)

M.A. Diego et al.

HIV adolescents show improved immune function following massage therapy

International Journal of Neuroscience

(2001)

J. Dieter et al.

Stable preterm infants gain more weight and sleep less after five days of massage

Journal of Pediatric Psychology

(2003)

M. Eaton et al.

The effect of touch on nutritional intake of chronic organic brain syndrome patients

Journal of Gerontology

(1989)

H.A. Elfenbein et al.

Is there an ingroup advantage in emotion recognition?

Psychological Bulletin

(2002)

D. Ersceau et al.

Tactile contact and evaluation of the toucher

Social Psychology

(2007)

A. Escalona et al.

Brief report: Improvements in the behavior of children with autism following massage therapy

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

(2001)

T. Field

Preschoolers in America are touched less and are more aggressive than preschoolers in France

Early Child Development and Care

(1999)

T. Field

American adolescents touch each other less and are more aggressive toward their peers as compared with French adolescents

Adolescence

(1999)

T. Field

Touch

(2001)

T. Field et al.

Maternal depression effects on infant frontal EEG asymmetry

International Journal of Neuroscience

(2008)

T. Field et al.

Fibromyalgia pain and substance P decrease and sleep improves after massage therapy

Journal of Clinical Rheumatology

(2002)

T. Field et al.

Massage therapy research

Developmental Review

(2006)

T. Field et al.

Moderate pressure is essential for massage therapy effects

International Journal of Neuroscience

(2010)

T. Field et al.

Pregnancy massage reduces prematurity, low birthweight and postpartum depression

Infant Behavior and Development

(2010)

T. Field et al.

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-1) Increase in preterm infants following massage therapy

Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics

(2008)

Cited by (401)

The power of human touch: Physical contact improves performance in basketball free throws
2024, Psychology of Sport and Exercise
How pervasive is the power of human touch? Physical touch by other humans shows social support and alleviates stress – stress that may otherwise interfere with performance in athletic tasks. We argue that physical touch improves performance in highly stressful situations: free throws in basketball. In two studies (N_total = 60 NCAAW games, k_total = 835 free throw tandems), we assessed how often teammates touched the shooting player (e.g., a tap on the shoulder) in between shooting two free throws. We find that the extent of touch (i.e., being touched by 0, 1, 2, 3, or all 4 teammates) after the first free throw predicted success with the second free throw, but only when players missed the first free throw (integrated data analysis: main effect hand taps: b = 0.47, p = .021; main effect first free throw: b = 1.36, p = .019; interaction effect: b = −0.55, p = .024). We argue that this means that teammates’ support expressed in physical touch helps particularly when stress levels are already high. Results are robust when controlling for players’ skill level, home versus away games, point difference, and remaining playing time. More frequent touch was also tendentially associated with teams' season success (ACC-teams only, main effect of hand taps: b = −0.42, p = .062). Physical touch thus indeed boosts performance under stress, superseding a range of other factors, likely also in other team sports and interpersonal relationships.
The impact of daily affective touch on cortisol levels in institutionalized & fostered children
2024, Physiology and Behavior
Institutionalized children are often deprived of affective touch. Such tactile deprivation often leads to constant stress, as measured by the levels of salivary cortisol. We report here the impact of an affective touch program, optimized to activate a specific population of unmyelinated mechanosensitive nerves in the skin called c-tactile afferents (CT) on stress resistance. Two populations of children (age 4–10) were recruited: (i) a cohort living in an orphanage and (ii) a fostered cohort. Both groups received the affective touch program daily for 10–15 min for 5–6 weeks. A cohort of age-matched children living in a family environment acted as a control group and did not receive any instructions for tactile stimulation. Salivary cortisol was collected at the beginning (T1) and at the end (T2) of the study in all three groups. For institutionalized and fostered children there was a significant improvement in the level of cortisol (p < 0.0001) between T1 and T2, which is manifested in the balancing cortisol levels: a decrease where it was elevated and an increase, where the critically low level testified to the distress of the child. Balancing cortisol levels is a process of recovery to normal values, which indicates the restoration of neurohumoral mechanisms of stress regulation. The effect of balancing cortisol levels was more pronounced in the group of fostered children compared to the group of orphanage children (p = 0.0326). The children in the control group had no significant differences.
The 4C model of healthy sleep for childhood interpersonal trauma
2024, Children and Youth Services Review
Restorative sleep is foundational for growth and development but remains a largely neglected area of health in the context of childhood trauma. This healthcare gap is especially great among child victims of interpersonal trauma who experience sleep disturbances at high rates. A trauma-informed framework is imperative both for understanding and addressing sleep-wake dysregulation in this vulnerable population. This article introduces the 4C Model of Healthy Sleep for Childhood Interpersonal Trauma as a resource and tool for professionals who provide services and support for these children in various settings (e.g., pediatricians, social workers, prevention specialists). Model components were developed and derived from evidence-based pediatric sleep practices, principles of attachment theory, reciprocal relationships between trauma and sleep disruption, and sleep intervention research among children with a history of foster care placement. Developed for use with infants and children up to 10 years of age, the trauma-informed model aims to educate and empower caregivers with behavioral tools for reducing sleep-related problems among child victims of interpersonal trauma including attachment disruptions. Although not intended to address complex sleep problems and disorders, the relevance and conciseness of the 4C model provides a needed resource for both research and practice.
Interpersonal touch and the importance of romantic partners for older adults’ neuroendocrine health
2024, Psychoneuroendocrinology
Interpersonal touch is an essential aspect of human interaction that has the ability to regulate physiological stress responses. Prolonged exposure to stress can have cumulative multiphysiological effects; for example, allostatic load. Despite the increased susceptibility of social isolation for older adults, there is a paucity of research on the efficacy of touch in regulating stress responses among this population. It is also unknown whether touch confers benefits regardless of the person with whom it is shared. This study investigates the difference in physiological stress based on the frequency of touch (hugs, holding, or other close physical contact) shared with romantic partners as compared to other close adults (family, friends, and neighbours) in an older adult population. Data were analysed from 1419 respondents (aged 57–85 years) of the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (NSHAP) in 2005–2006. Principal components analysis determined whether the eight markers of allostatic load measured in the NSHAP function as a singular system or as distinct components. Analyses revealed three components of allostatic load: metabolic, cardiovascular, and neuroendocrine health. The results of multiple regression revealed that a higher frequency of interpersonal touch shared with romantic partners was associated with better neuroendocrine health (β = 0.13, p = 0.004) following adjustment for a variety of covariates (but not with better metabolic or cardiovascular health), with no associations apparent for touch from other close adults. These findings highlight the importance of promoting interpersonal touch with romantic partners for older adults’ neuroendocrine health.
Genetic variability in the oxytocin system is linked to individual differences in cuddliness among human infants
2024, Psychoneuroendocrinology
Pleasant touch facilitates social interactions, affiliative behavior and emotional bonding, contributing to positive infant and child development. Oxytocin is presumed to play an important role in mediating these effects of pleasant touch on brain, body and behavior. However, little is known about the role the oxytocin system plays in pleasant touch during infancy. This study examined the hypothesis that genetic variability in the oxytocin system is linked to individual differences in infants’ cuddliness operationalized as parent-reported behaviors indexing an infant’s motivation to seek out and enjoy caregiver touch. Our results (N = 82) show that a polymorphism in CD38 (rs3796863), previously linked with increased release of oxytocin in adults, was associated with higher reported rates of cuddliness. In contrast, infants with CD38 genotype previously linked to autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and reduced release of oxytocin in adults, was associated with lower rates of cuddliness. These findings support the hypothesis that, from early in human ontogeny, genetic variation in the oxytocin system is systematically linked to individual differences in the reported motivation to seek out, and the enjoyment of receiving, pleasant caregiver touch. This provides novel insights into the neurohormonal processes involved in pleasant touch.
The effect of rose oil aromatherapy and hand-holding on pain due to peripheral intravenous catheter insertion
2024, Explore
The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of rose oil (Rosa Damascene Mill.) aromatherapy and hand-holding in reducing pain associated with peripheral intravenous catheter insertion.
A comparative mixed-method design. A total of 126 patients were included in the study. For the study's quantitative data, sociodemographic characteristics of the patients and the Patient Interview Form for the qualitative data of the Numeric Rating Scale were used. In all patients included in the study, PIVC insertion was performed a single time by the same nurse using a standard procedure. Chi-square and Bonferroni tests were used for comparative statistics.
No statistically significant difference between the groups regarding age, gender, marital status, BMI, and education level (p>0.05). Pain scores: it was 2.40±1.78 in the rose oil group, 3.53±1.98 in the hand-holding group, and 4.88±1.56 in the control group. The difference between the groups regarding pain scores is statistically significant (p=0.001).
The study determined that rose oil aromatherapy and hand-holding interventions reduce pain during PIVC. However, rose oil aromatherapy was more effective on pain than the hand-holding intervention.
(Clinical Trial ID: NCT05425849)

View all citing articles on Scopus

View full text

Touch for socioemotional and physical well-being: A review

Abstract

Research highlights

Introduction

Section snippets

Touch in early development

Touch in social interaction

Virtual reality touching devices

Friendly touching affects compliance

Neural bases for encoding touch

Physiological and biochemical effects of touch

Massage therapy effects

Summary, conclusions, implications and future directions

Acknowledgments

The Journal of Pain and Symptom Management

Neuroimage

Infant Behavior and Development

Infant Behavior and Development

Psychoneuroendocrinology

Early Human Development

Infant Behavior and Development

Infant Behavior and Development

Infant Behavior and Development

Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice

Infant Behavior and Development

Infant Behavior and Development

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Journal of Pain

Acta Psychological Amsterdam

Biological Psychiatry

Infant Behavior and Development

Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies

Journal of Psychosomatic Research

Journal of Affective Disorders

Journal of Cataract and Refractive Surgery

Complementary Therapies in Nursing and Midwifery

Biological Psychology

Brian Research

Infant Behavior and Development

Journal of Affective Disorders

Biological Psychiatry

Neuroscience Letters

Life Sciences

Tactile sensory substitution studies

Annals of the New York Academy of Science

Do the effects of early severe deprivation on cognition persist into early adolescence? Findings from the English and Romanian adoptees study

Child Development

Sensorial saturation for neonatal analgesia

Clinical Journal of Pain

Natural killer cells and cancer

American Cancer Society

Preterm infant massage elicits consistent increases in vagal activity and gastric motility that are associated with greater weight gain

Acta Pediatrica

Massage therapy of moderate and light pressure and vibrator effects on EEG and heart rate

International Journal of Neuroscience

HIV adolescents show improved immune function following massage therapy

International Journal of Neuroscience

Stable preterm infants gain more weight and sleep less after five days of massage

Journal of Pediatric Psychology

The effect of touch on nutritional intake of chronic organic brain syndrome patients

Journal of Gerontology

Is there an ingroup advantage in emotion recognition?

Psychological Bulletin

Tactile contact and evaluation of the toucher

Social Psychology

Brief report: Improvements in the behavior of children with autism following massage therapy

Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

Preschoolers in America are touched less and are more aggressive than preschoolers in France

Early Child Development and Care

American adolescents touch each other less and are more aggressive toward their peers as compared with French adolescents

Adolescence

Touch

Maternal depression effects on infant frontal EEG asymmetry

International Journal of Neuroscience

Fibromyalgia pain and substance P decrease and sleep improves after massage therapy

Journal of Clinical Rheumatology

Massage therapy research

Developmental Review

Moderate pressure is essential for massage therapy effects

International Journal of Neuroscience