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Roberto Vivancos, Viviene Maskrey, Daphne Rumball, Ian Harvey, Richard Holland, Crack/cocaine use in a rural county of England, Journal of Public Health, Volume 28, Issue 2, June 2006, Pages 96–103, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdl010
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Abstract
Crack/cocaine use is an increasing problem in the UK. This study is the first to ascertain the magnitude of the crack/cocaine problem in a rural county of the UK and to determine users’ needs for treatment services. A questionnaire on drug dependence and risk behaviour was completed by 306 users of drug treatment services, and focus groups were conducted with 45 self-selected crack/cocaine users. It is estimated that 31% (95% C.I., 26% to 37%) of drug users in treatment services have moderate/severe dependence on crack/cocaine. Factors associated with severe crack/cocaine dependence are severe dependence on benzodiazepines, increasing number of drugs used, engaging in sex work and non-white ethnicity. Those with severe dependence have a higher prevalence of hepatitis B and C compared with those with moderate or no dependence. All focus group participants describe a frenzied drug life so when entering treatment they require additional support to give structure to their lives to prevent relapse. Current service provision appears not to provide help to crack/cocaine users. Given the lack of pharmacological treatment, programmes should incorporate a wide range of activities and interventions to provide structure to clients’ lives. Learning from ex-users was perceived as an important component of treatment.
Background
Crack and cocaine use is an increasing problem in the United Kingdom. Its use has risen among people aged 16–29 years from 1% in 1996 to 3% in 1998 and 4.9% in 2000.1 Crack is a highly addictive substance, with effects on the neurological and cardiovascular systems and has profound withdrawal effects.2 Most researchers agree that crack/cocaine is associated with a pattern of obsessive-compulsive drug use and social exclusion.3 Some crack users need to support their drug use illicitly, which leads to their involvement in acquisitive crime and prostitution,4,5 putting crack users at high risk of acquiring HIV and other sexually transmitted infections.6,7 Furthermore, a recent report from the Health Protection Agency, based on results from the Unlinked Anonymous Prevalence Monitoring Programme (UAPMP), highlighted concerns about raised prevalence of HIV and hepatitis B and C among crack/cocaine users.8,9 For these reasons, the government has recently focused attention on this drug.10,11
This is the first study to conduct a needs assessment of crack/cocaine users in a rural area of the United Kingdom. In line with the rest of the United Kingdom, Norfolk, a very rural county in the east of England, has seen an increase in the proportion of people accessing drug treatment services, who indicate that crack/cocaine is their main drug, from 1.6% in 1999 to 7% in 2002.12 Our overall objective was to conduct a needs assessment of crack/cocaine users. The first aim was to use capture–recapture techniques to determine the extent of problem drug use in Norfolk (see accompanying paper by Holland et al.). It estimated the prevalence of problem drug use in Norfolk to be 2.05%, indicating the importance of this health problem even in a rural county.13 The second aim, reported in this article, used a questionnaire to investigate the proportion of substance misusers who use crack or cocaine as their main or secondary substance of misuse and to determine their level of dependence on these substances. Also, focus groups investigated factors related to severe dependence on crack/cocaine and the treatment needs of this group of drug users.
Methods
This part of the study was divided into two components: a questionnaire survey and focus group discussions. All parts of the study were approved by the Norwich Research Ethics Committee.
Questionnaire survey
Although data are available from the regional drug misuse database, these are generally limited to the main drug of use. The study employed a self-completion questionnaire survey of drug users in the community. The drug users were identified through 10 National Health Service (NHS) and non-statutory drug treatment centres, where the questionnaires were distributed to new and existing clients. This questionnaire included questions on drug dependency (as used by the Office for National Statistics), which have been shown to provide valid information when compared with more detailed clinical assessment.14 Table 1 summarizes the questions asked for each of the drugs and the criteria used to assess the level of dependence. The questionnaire also covered aspects of alcohol dependence using the three question Brief Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test.15–17 To minimize the disruption to each agency, we carried out the survey over a 2- to 4-week period in each agency.
Each question refers to the last month (for those in treatment, we asked them to record their behaviour before they entered treatment) |
(a) Did you use the drug every day for 2 weeks or more |
(b) Did you feel you needed or were dependent on this drug? (You felt you could not get by without it?) |
(c) Did you try to cut down but found you could not? |
(d) Did you find you could not get high on the amount you used to use? |
(e) Did you have withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick because you stopped or cut down? |
Those who answered ‘YES’ to one or more questions were considered to have moderate dependence (two or more for cannabis). Those who answered affirmatively to three or more questions were considered to have severe drug dependence. These criteria have been defined by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) |
Each question refers to the last month (for those in treatment, we asked them to record their behaviour before they entered treatment) |
(a) Did you use the drug every day for 2 weeks or more |
(b) Did you feel you needed or were dependent on this drug? (You felt you could not get by without it?) |
(c) Did you try to cut down but found you could not? |
(d) Did you find you could not get high on the amount you used to use? |
(e) Did you have withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick because you stopped or cut down? |
Those who answered ‘YES’ to one or more questions were considered to have moderate dependence (two or more for cannabis). Those who answered affirmatively to three or more questions were considered to have severe drug dependence. These criteria have been defined by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) |
Each question refers to the last month (for those in treatment, we asked them to record their behaviour before they entered treatment) |
(a) Did you use the drug every day for 2 weeks or more |
(b) Did you feel you needed or were dependent on this drug? (You felt you could not get by without it?) |
(c) Did you try to cut down but found you could not? |
(d) Did you find you could not get high on the amount you used to use? |
(e) Did you have withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick because you stopped or cut down? |
Those who answered ‘YES’ to one or more questions were considered to have moderate dependence (two or more for cannabis). Those who answered affirmatively to three or more questions were considered to have severe drug dependence. These criteria have been defined by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) |
Each question refers to the last month (for those in treatment, we asked them to record their behaviour before they entered treatment) |
(a) Did you use the drug every day for 2 weeks or more |
(b) Did you feel you needed or were dependent on this drug? (You felt you could not get by without it?) |
(c) Did you try to cut down but found you could not? |
(d) Did you find you could not get high on the amount you used to use? |
(e) Did you have withdrawal symptoms such as feeling sick because you stopped or cut down? |
Those who answered ‘YES’ to one or more questions were considered to have moderate dependence (two or more for cannabis). Those who answered affirmatively to three or more questions were considered to have severe drug dependence. These criteria have been defined by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) |
At the start of this study, we had no local estimate of prevalence, but national estimates suggested that the prevalence of problem drug use was 0.8% in the age range 15–54 years.18 This suggested that in Norfolk, one would expect to find approximately 3200 drug users. The proportion of those using crack/cocaine as their main drug was thought to be approximately 4.9%.1 Thus, to estimate this proportion with 95% confidence limits of ±2%, a sample size of 393 completed questionnaires was required.
The primary outcome was the proportion of respondents reporting moderate-to-severe dependence by drug type. A univariate analysis of possible risk factors associated with severe crack/cocaine dependence was also conducted. Those factors identified as potentially significant (at the P < 0.1 level) were included into a logistic regression model to determine the strongest predictors of severe dependence on crack/cocaine.
Finally, the study compared the self-reported prevalence of blood-borne virus infection in drug users severely dependent on crack/cocaine with those not severely dependent. For the purpose of this analysis, all questions left unanswered were considered as a negative answer (e.g. ‘have you ever tested positive for hepatitis B?’ when unanswered was interpreted as ‘no’).
Focus groups
Seven focus groups of crack/cocaine users were conducted (six in the city of Norwich and one in the town of Great Yarmouth). Participants were recruited from those who responded to leaflets and posters displayed in a wide variety of appropriate locations (e.g. treatment clinic waiting rooms and homeless hostels). To endeavour to include individuals both in contact with treatment services and unknown to the services, ‘snowballing’ techniques were used. These have been successful in researching ‘hard-to-reach’ populations.19
Individuals interested in taking part in the groups telephoned a researcher at the university. Information on whether they were current or ex-users of crack/cocaine was obtained to allocate them to the most appropriate group. Different groups were organized for younger (25 years and below) current users, younger ex-users, older current users and older ex-users. One women-only group was conducted with sex workers. All the groups interviewed were tape recorded and then transcribed. Written consent was obtained from each participant before the commencement of the discussion. The focus groups lasted between 90 and 110 minutes and were held in neutral premises central to the city or town, away from the location of treatment services (NHS clinics).
Results
Questionnaire survey
The total number of survey respondents was 306. A response rate was only provided by 6 of 10 centres. In these sites, 165 of 185 potential respondents completed the questionnaires (89%). The other four sites did not collect data on the numbers refusing to complete the questionnaire. The mean age of respondents was 29.9 years (range 15–55 years); 28% were females, and 94% were from a white ethnic background. Table 2 summarizes the demographic characteristics of the participants. A total of 208 (68%) of the respondents completed the question regarding their main drug of use. Amongst responders, heroin was the most commonly reported main drug (174, 84%), followed by cannabis (18, 9%) and crack/cocaine (17, 8%). It should be noted that 10 of the 17 individuals who used crack/cocaine as their main drug did so in combination with heroin.
. | All respondents (n = 306) Note proportions are of those responding to each question . |
---|---|
Mean age (median) | 29.9 (29) |
Age range (interquartile range) | 15–55 (24–35) |
SD | 8.0 |
% female | 67 (28%) |
Ethnic groups | |
White | 286 (94%) |
Black | 3 (1%) |
Mixed | 12 (4%) |
Other | 4 (1%) |
Employment | |
Employed | 29 (10%) |
Self-Employed | 8 (3%) |
Unemployed | 247 (83%) |
Student | 10 (3%) |
Retired | 2 (1%) |
% registered with GP | 257 (91%) |
Home address | |
Home | 211 (72%) |
Hostel | 37 (13%) |
Night shelter | 4 (1%) |
B&B | 7 (2%) |
No fixed address | 35 (12%) |
. | All respondents (n = 306) Note proportions are of those responding to each question . |
---|---|
Mean age (median) | 29.9 (29) |
Age range (interquartile range) | 15–55 (24–35) |
SD | 8.0 |
% female | 67 (28%) |
Ethnic groups | |
White | 286 (94%) |
Black | 3 (1%) |
Mixed | 12 (4%) |
Other | 4 (1%) |
Employment | |
Employed | 29 (10%) |
Self-Employed | 8 (3%) |
Unemployed | 247 (83%) |
Student | 10 (3%) |
Retired | 2 (1%) |
% registered with GP | 257 (91%) |
Home address | |
Home | 211 (72%) |
Hostel | 37 (13%) |
Night shelter | 4 (1%) |
B&B | 7 (2%) |
No fixed address | 35 (12%) |
. | All respondents (n = 306) Note proportions are of those responding to each question . |
---|---|
Mean age (median) | 29.9 (29) |
Age range (interquartile range) | 15–55 (24–35) |
SD | 8.0 |
% female | 67 (28%) |
Ethnic groups | |
White | 286 (94%) |
Black | 3 (1%) |
Mixed | 12 (4%) |
Other | 4 (1%) |
Employment | |
Employed | 29 (10%) |
Self-Employed | 8 (3%) |
Unemployed | 247 (83%) |
Student | 10 (3%) |
Retired | 2 (1%) |
% registered with GP | 257 (91%) |
Home address | |
Home | 211 (72%) |
Hostel | 37 (13%) |
Night shelter | 4 (1%) |
B&B | 7 (2%) |
No fixed address | 35 (12%) |
. | All respondents (n = 306) Note proportions are of those responding to each question . |
---|---|
Mean age (median) | 29.9 (29) |
Age range (interquartile range) | 15–55 (24–35) |
SD | 8.0 |
% female | 67 (28%) |
Ethnic groups | |
White | 286 (94%) |
Black | 3 (1%) |
Mixed | 12 (4%) |
Other | 4 (1%) |
Employment | |
Employed | 29 (10%) |
Self-Employed | 8 (3%) |
Unemployed | 247 (83%) |
Student | 10 (3%) |
Retired | 2 (1%) |
% registered with GP | 257 (91%) |
Home address | |
Home | 211 (72%) |
Hostel | 37 (13%) |
Night shelter | 4 (1%) |
B&B | 7 (2%) |
No fixed address | 35 (12%) |
The mean number of drugs used by the participants was 3.6 (range 1–8). Table 3 summarizes the proportion of clients moderately to severely dependent on different drugs. Moderate or severe dependence on heroin was identified in 82% of clients (95% CI, 78–86%). Moderate-to-severe crack or cocaine dependence was evident in 31% of clients (95% CI, 26–37%), and this was severe in 12% (95% CI, 9–17%). These proportions did not vary between new or current clients of either drug treatment services (able to prescribe treatment) or other drug agencies (Table 4).
. | Respondents using the drug (n = 306) (%) . | Moderate dependence (n = 306) (%) . | Severe dependence (n = 306) (%) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cannabis | 216 (70.6) | 31 (10.1) | 53 (17.3) |
Heroin | 269 (87.9) | 13 (4.2) | 239 (78.1) |
Methadone | 97 (31.7) | 28 (9.2) | 31 (10.1) |
Speed/amphetamine | 81 (26.5) | 25 (8.2) | 9 (2.9) |
Crack/cocaine | 192 (62.7) | 57 (18.6) | 38 (12.4) |
Benzodiazepine | 166 (54.2) | 30 (9.8) | 62 (20.3) |
Solvents | 12 (3.9) | 7 (2.3) | 1 (0.3) |
Other | 61 (19.9) | 11 (3.6) | 16 (5.2) |
. | Respondents using the drug (n = 306) (%) . | Moderate dependence (n = 306) (%) . | Severe dependence (n = 306) (%) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cannabis | 216 (70.6) | 31 (10.1) | 53 (17.3) |
Heroin | 269 (87.9) | 13 (4.2) | 239 (78.1) |
Methadone | 97 (31.7) | 28 (9.2) | 31 (10.1) |
Speed/amphetamine | 81 (26.5) | 25 (8.2) | 9 (2.9) |
Crack/cocaine | 192 (62.7) | 57 (18.6) | 38 (12.4) |
Benzodiazepine | 166 (54.2) | 30 (9.8) | 62 (20.3) |
Solvents | 12 (3.9) | 7 (2.3) | 1 (0.3) |
Other | 61 (19.9) | 11 (3.6) | 16 (5.2) |
The result in bold is that for the drug of concern in the article.
. | Respondents using the drug (n = 306) (%) . | Moderate dependence (n = 306) (%) . | Severe dependence (n = 306) (%) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cannabis | 216 (70.6) | 31 (10.1) | 53 (17.3) |
Heroin | 269 (87.9) | 13 (4.2) | 239 (78.1) |
Methadone | 97 (31.7) | 28 (9.2) | 31 (10.1) |
Speed/amphetamine | 81 (26.5) | 25 (8.2) | 9 (2.9) |
Crack/cocaine | 192 (62.7) | 57 (18.6) | 38 (12.4) |
Benzodiazepine | 166 (54.2) | 30 (9.8) | 62 (20.3) |
Solvents | 12 (3.9) | 7 (2.3) | 1 (0.3) |
Other | 61 (19.9) | 11 (3.6) | 16 (5.2) |
. | Respondents using the drug (n = 306) (%) . | Moderate dependence (n = 306) (%) . | Severe dependence (n = 306) (%) . |
---|---|---|---|
Cannabis | 216 (70.6) | 31 (10.1) | 53 (17.3) |
Heroin | 269 (87.9) | 13 (4.2) | 239 (78.1) |
Methadone | 97 (31.7) | 28 (9.2) | 31 (10.1) |
Speed/amphetamine | 81 (26.5) | 25 (8.2) | 9 (2.9) |
Crack/cocaine | 192 (62.7) | 57 (18.6) | 38 (12.4) |
Benzodiazepine | 166 (54.2) | 30 (9.8) | 62 (20.3) |
Solvents | 12 (3.9) | 7 (2.3) | 1 (0.3) |
Other | 61 (19.9) | 11 (3.6) | 16 (5.2) |
The result in bold is that for the drug of concern in the article.
. | Number (%) severely dependent on crack/cocaine . | Number (%) moderately dependent on crack/cocaine . | Proportion moderately or severely dependent on crack/cocaine (95% CI) . |
---|---|---|---|
New patient (n = 96) | 13 (12.5) | 16 (16) | 28% (20–38) |
Current patient (n = 177) | 25 (12) | 41 (21) | 33% (26–40) |
Clinical treatment services (n = 249) | 31 (12) | 48 (20) | 32% (26–38) |
Other agencies (n = 56) | 7 (13) | 9 (16) | 29% (17–42) |
. | Number (%) severely dependent on crack/cocaine . | Number (%) moderately dependent on crack/cocaine . | Proportion moderately or severely dependent on crack/cocaine (95% CI) . |
---|---|---|---|
New patient (n = 96) | 13 (12.5) | 16 (16) | 28% (20–38) |
Current patient (n = 177) | 25 (12) | 41 (21) | 33% (26–40) |
Clinical treatment services (n = 249) | 31 (12) | 48 (20) | 32% (26–38) |
Other agencies (n = 56) | 7 (13) | 9 (16) | 29% (17–42) |
. | Number (%) severely dependent on crack/cocaine . | Number (%) moderately dependent on crack/cocaine . | Proportion moderately or severely dependent on crack/cocaine (95% CI) . |
---|---|---|---|
New patient (n = 96) | 13 (12.5) | 16 (16) | 28% (20–38) |
Current patient (n = 177) | 25 (12) | 41 (21) | 33% (26–40) |
Clinical treatment services (n = 249) | 31 (12) | 48 (20) | 32% (26–38) |
Other agencies (n = 56) | 7 (13) | 9 (16) | 29% (17–42) |
. | Number (%) severely dependent on crack/cocaine . | Number (%) moderately dependent on crack/cocaine . | Proportion moderately or severely dependent on crack/cocaine (95% CI) . |
---|---|---|---|
New patient (n = 96) | 13 (12.5) | 16 (16) | 28% (20–38) |
Current patient (n = 177) | 25 (12) | 41 (21) | 33% (26–40) |
Clinical treatment services (n = 249) | 31 (12) | 48 (20) | 32% (26–38) |
Other agencies (n = 56) | 7 (13) | 9 (16) | 29% (17–42) |
Those severely dependent on crack/cocaine used a median of five different drugs as compared with those not severely dependent who used a median of three drugs (P < 0.001, using Mann–Whitney test). Table 5 summarizes the relationship between severe crack/cocaine dependence and a variety of risk factors. Logistic regression suggested that the following variables were independently associated with severe crack/cocaine dependence (Table 6): severe dependence on benzodiazepines (odds ratio = 2.5, 95% CI 1.1–5.6), non-white ethnic background (odds ratio = 3.6, 95% CI 1.1–11.3), greater number of drugs (this was a linear relationship with an odds ratio = 1.25, 95% CI 1.0–1.56 for each additional drug) and exchanging sex for money, drugs or favours (odds ratio = 2.3, 95% CI 1.0–5.1).
. | Severe dependence on crack/cocaine (n = 38)* . | Not severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 267)** . | P value comparing severe crack/cocaine dependent users with all other respondents (chi-squared test, except where indicated) . |
---|---|---|---|
Age | Mean age = 28.4 | Mean age = 30.1 | 0.21 using t-test |
Female | 10 (36%) | 57 (27%) | 0.36 |
Ethnic minority | 6 (16%) | 13 (5%) | 0.009 |
Nearest town (Norwich) | 19 (50%) | 101 (39%) | 0.18 |
Treatment agency respondent | 31 (82%) | 218 (82%) | 0.99 |
Employed | 3 (9%) | 34 (13%) | 0.36 |
Living in own home | 20 (59%) | 190 (73%) | 0.08 |
Not registered with a GP | 5 (15%) | 21 (8%) | 0.21 |
Sex for money, drugs or favours | 14 (38%) | 42 (16%) | 0.001 |
Injected drugs in last month | 27 (82%) | 156 (68%) | 0.10 |
Shared injecting equipment in last month | 16 (52%) | 66 (34%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on heroin | 34 (89%) | 204 (76%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on methadone | 10 (26%) | 20 (7%) | 0.001 |
Severely dependent on amphetamine | 5 (13%) | 4 (2%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on benzodiazepine | 18 (47%) | 44 (17%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on cannabis | 11 (29%) | 42 (16%) | 0.044 |
Severely dependent on solvents | 1 (3%) | 0 (0%) | 0.01 |
Alcohol dependent | 14 (35%) | 93 (35%) | 0.81 |
Number of drugs | Mean = 4.6 (median = 5) | Mean = 3.5 (median = 3) | <0.001 (Mann–Whitney test) |
. | Severe dependence on crack/cocaine (n = 38)* . | Not severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 267)** . | P value comparing severe crack/cocaine dependent users with all other respondents (chi-squared test, except where indicated) . |
---|---|---|---|
Age | Mean age = 28.4 | Mean age = 30.1 | 0.21 using t-test |
Female | 10 (36%) | 57 (27%) | 0.36 |
Ethnic minority | 6 (16%) | 13 (5%) | 0.009 |
Nearest town (Norwich) | 19 (50%) | 101 (39%) | 0.18 |
Treatment agency respondent | 31 (82%) | 218 (82%) | 0.99 |
Employed | 3 (9%) | 34 (13%) | 0.36 |
Living in own home | 20 (59%) | 190 (73%) | 0.08 |
Not registered with a GP | 5 (15%) | 21 (8%) | 0.21 |
Sex for money, drugs or favours | 14 (38%) | 42 (16%) | 0.001 |
Injected drugs in last month | 27 (82%) | 156 (68%) | 0.10 |
Shared injecting equipment in last month | 16 (52%) | 66 (34%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on heroin | 34 (89%) | 204 (76%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on methadone | 10 (26%) | 20 (7%) | 0.001 |
Severely dependent on amphetamine | 5 (13%) | 4 (2%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on benzodiazepine | 18 (47%) | 44 (17%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on cannabis | 11 (29%) | 42 (16%) | 0.044 |
Severely dependent on solvents | 1 (3%) | 0 (0%) | 0.01 |
Alcohol dependent | 14 (35%) | 93 (35%) | 0.81 |
Number of drugs | Mean = 4.6 (median = 5) | Mean = 3.5 (median = 3) | <0.001 (Mann–Whitney test) |
In certain rows, n < 38 because of respondents omitting certain questions.
In certain rows, n < 267 due to respondents omitting certain questions.
Bold is use here to highlight results that are statistically significant.
. | Severe dependence on crack/cocaine (n = 38)* . | Not severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 267)** . | P value comparing severe crack/cocaine dependent users with all other respondents (chi-squared test, except where indicated) . |
---|---|---|---|
Age | Mean age = 28.4 | Mean age = 30.1 | 0.21 using t-test |
Female | 10 (36%) | 57 (27%) | 0.36 |
Ethnic minority | 6 (16%) | 13 (5%) | 0.009 |
Nearest town (Norwich) | 19 (50%) | 101 (39%) | 0.18 |
Treatment agency respondent | 31 (82%) | 218 (82%) | 0.99 |
Employed | 3 (9%) | 34 (13%) | 0.36 |
Living in own home | 20 (59%) | 190 (73%) | 0.08 |
Not registered with a GP | 5 (15%) | 21 (8%) | 0.21 |
Sex for money, drugs or favours | 14 (38%) | 42 (16%) | 0.001 |
Injected drugs in last month | 27 (82%) | 156 (68%) | 0.10 |
Shared injecting equipment in last month | 16 (52%) | 66 (34%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on heroin | 34 (89%) | 204 (76%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on methadone | 10 (26%) | 20 (7%) | 0.001 |
Severely dependent on amphetamine | 5 (13%) | 4 (2%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on benzodiazepine | 18 (47%) | 44 (17%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on cannabis | 11 (29%) | 42 (16%) | 0.044 |
Severely dependent on solvents | 1 (3%) | 0 (0%) | 0.01 |
Alcohol dependent | 14 (35%) | 93 (35%) | 0.81 |
Number of drugs | Mean = 4.6 (median = 5) | Mean = 3.5 (median = 3) | <0.001 (Mann–Whitney test) |
. | Severe dependence on crack/cocaine (n = 38)* . | Not severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 267)** . | P value comparing severe crack/cocaine dependent users with all other respondents (chi-squared test, except where indicated) . |
---|---|---|---|
Age | Mean age = 28.4 | Mean age = 30.1 | 0.21 using t-test |
Female | 10 (36%) | 57 (27%) | 0.36 |
Ethnic minority | 6 (16%) | 13 (5%) | 0.009 |
Nearest town (Norwich) | 19 (50%) | 101 (39%) | 0.18 |
Treatment agency respondent | 31 (82%) | 218 (82%) | 0.99 |
Employed | 3 (9%) | 34 (13%) | 0.36 |
Living in own home | 20 (59%) | 190 (73%) | 0.08 |
Not registered with a GP | 5 (15%) | 21 (8%) | 0.21 |
Sex for money, drugs or favours | 14 (38%) | 42 (16%) | 0.001 |
Injected drugs in last month | 27 (82%) | 156 (68%) | 0.10 |
Shared injecting equipment in last month | 16 (52%) | 66 (34%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on heroin | 34 (89%) | 204 (76%) | 0.07 |
Severely dependent on methadone | 10 (26%) | 20 (7%) | 0.001 |
Severely dependent on amphetamine | 5 (13%) | 4 (2%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on benzodiazepine | 18 (47%) | 44 (17%) | <0.001 |
Severely dependent on cannabis | 11 (29%) | 42 (16%) | 0.044 |
Severely dependent on solvents | 1 (3%) | 0 (0%) | 0.01 |
Alcohol dependent | 14 (35%) | 93 (35%) | 0.81 |
Number of drugs | Mean = 4.6 (median = 5) | Mean = 3.5 (median = 3) | <0.001 (Mann–Whitney test) |
In certain rows, n < 38 because of respondents omitting certain questions.
In certain rows, n < 267 due to respondents omitting certain questions.
Bold is use here to highlight results that are statistically significant.
Risk factor . | Odds ratio . | 95% CI . | P value . |
---|---|---|---|
Severe dependence on benzodiazepines | 2.4 | 1.1–5.6 | 0.03 |
Non-white ethnic group | 3.6 | 1.1–11.3 | 0.03 |
Number of drugs (as a continuous variable) | 1.25 | 1.0–1.56 | 0.05 |
Prostitution | 2.3 | 1.0–5.1 | 0.05 |
Risk factor . | Odds ratio . | 95% CI . | P value . |
---|---|---|---|
Severe dependence on benzodiazepines | 2.4 | 1.1–5.6 | 0.03 |
Non-white ethnic group | 3.6 | 1.1–11.3 | 0.03 |
Number of drugs (as a continuous variable) | 1.25 | 1.0–1.56 | 0.05 |
Prostitution | 2.3 | 1.0–5.1 | 0.05 |
Risk factor . | Odds ratio . | 95% CI . | P value . |
---|---|---|---|
Severe dependence on benzodiazepines | 2.4 | 1.1–5.6 | 0.03 |
Non-white ethnic group | 3.6 | 1.1–11.3 | 0.03 |
Number of drugs (as a continuous variable) | 1.25 | 1.0–1.56 | 0.05 |
Prostitution | 2.3 | 1.0–5.1 | 0.05 |
Risk factor . | Odds ratio . | 95% CI . | P value . |
---|---|---|---|
Severe dependence on benzodiazepines | 2.4 | 1.1–5.6 | 0.03 |
Non-white ethnic group | 3.6 | 1.1–11.3 | 0.03 |
Number of drugs (as a continuous variable) | 1.25 | 1.0–1.56 | 0.05 |
Prostitution | 2.3 | 1.0–5.1 | 0.05 |
The questions about diagnosis of hepatitis B, C or HIV were completed by 54% of the participants, with the rest either leaving them blank or stating not to know the result. There was no difference in the prevalence of self-reported HIV infection in those with or without severe dependence on crack/cocaine within our sample of drug users in treatment (Table 7). However, respondents severely dependent on crack/cocaine had twice the prevalence of infection with both hepatitis C (P = 0.04) and hepatitis B, although the latter was non-significant (P = 0.19).
. | Severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 38) . | Not severely dependant on crack/cocaine (n = 268) . | Fisher’s (two sided) (P value) . |
---|---|---|---|
Hep B | 4 (10.5%) | 13 (4.8%) | 0.19 |
Hep C | 11 (28.9%) | 41 (15.3%) | 0.04 |
HIV | 1 (2.6%) | 8 (2.9%) | 0.98 |
. | Severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 38) . | Not severely dependant on crack/cocaine (n = 268) . | Fisher’s (two sided) (P value) . |
---|---|---|---|
Hep B | 4 (10.5%) | 13 (4.8%) | 0.19 |
Hep C | 11 (28.9%) | 41 (15.3%) | 0.04 |
HIV | 1 (2.6%) | 8 (2.9%) | 0.98 |
Bold is use here to highlight results that are statistically significant.
. | Severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 38) . | Not severely dependant on crack/cocaine (n = 268) . | Fisher’s (two sided) (P value) . |
---|---|---|---|
Hep B | 4 (10.5%) | 13 (4.8%) | 0.19 |
Hep C | 11 (28.9%) | 41 (15.3%) | 0.04 |
HIV | 1 (2.6%) | 8 (2.9%) | 0.98 |
. | Severely dependent on crack/cocaine (n = 38) . | Not severely dependant on crack/cocaine (n = 268) . | Fisher’s (two sided) (P value) . |
---|---|---|---|
Hep B | 4 (10.5%) | 13 (4.8%) | 0.19 |
Hep C | 11 (28.9%) | 41 (15.3%) | 0.04 |
HIV | 1 (2.6%) | 8 (2.9%) | 0.98 |
Bold is use here to highlight results that are statistically significant.
Focus groups
There were six focus groups held in Norwich and one in Great Yarmouth, with 45 participants; 17 of whom were females. The mean age was 30.2 years (range 20–53). Most participants had had some experience with local drug services. Similar themes emerged in all the groups. Tables 8 and 9 summarize a selection of representative quotes from the themes discussed below.
Progression to crack |
‘It starts off in my experience, someone starts smoking cannabis, he will go from cannabis to either LSD or speed, ecstasy and then they go onto hard drugs heroin and crack. Everyone says that is where it starts, cannabis all the time, everyone I know. ... it is because it is you get into that group of people who know where to get other drugs from’. |
Complex drug use |
‘Yeah I have got a heroin addiction ... I used a lot of crack and I used the smack to come down off crack, and ... I became addicted to heroin’ |
Crack life |
‘I have been on sessions and missions that have lasted like four or five weeks non stop, not stopping for nothing, not stopping for sleep not stopping for food. Just continuously going out during the day doing shop lifting, and then during the evening going out and burgling places. And just continuously either committing an offence or smoking’ ... |
‘Crack is a social killer, none of my family want to know me’ |
‘you get up you rob, you score, you rob again, you score some more’ |
Crack and prostitution |
‘I worked as a prostitute to fund my habit’ |
‘The dealers and it is usually black guys not being funny or racists, but they tell you they love you and lead you up the garden path make you ill and then start threatening you when you haven’t got the money that they want’ |
‘Yeah you are out on the streets, one to keep your habit going and two to keep them off your back ...’ |
Progression to crack |
‘It starts off in my experience, someone starts smoking cannabis, he will go from cannabis to either LSD or speed, ecstasy and then they go onto hard drugs heroin and crack. Everyone says that is where it starts, cannabis all the time, everyone I know. ... it is because it is you get into that group of people who know where to get other drugs from’. |
Complex drug use |
‘Yeah I have got a heroin addiction ... I used a lot of crack and I used the smack to come down off crack, and ... I became addicted to heroin’ |
Crack life |
‘I have been on sessions and missions that have lasted like four or five weeks non stop, not stopping for nothing, not stopping for sleep not stopping for food. Just continuously going out during the day doing shop lifting, and then during the evening going out and burgling places. And just continuously either committing an offence or smoking’ ... |
‘Crack is a social killer, none of my family want to know me’ |
‘you get up you rob, you score, you rob again, you score some more’ |
Crack and prostitution |
‘I worked as a prostitute to fund my habit’ |
‘The dealers and it is usually black guys not being funny or racists, but they tell you they love you and lead you up the garden path make you ill and then start threatening you when you haven’t got the money that they want’ |
‘Yeah you are out on the streets, one to keep your habit going and two to keep them off your back ...’ |
Progression to crack |
‘It starts off in my experience, someone starts smoking cannabis, he will go from cannabis to either LSD or speed, ecstasy and then they go onto hard drugs heroin and crack. Everyone says that is where it starts, cannabis all the time, everyone I know. ... it is because it is you get into that group of people who know where to get other drugs from’. |
Complex drug use |
‘Yeah I have got a heroin addiction ... I used a lot of crack and I used the smack to come down off crack, and ... I became addicted to heroin’ |
Crack life |
‘I have been on sessions and missions that have lasted like four or five weeks non stop, not stopping for nothing, not stopping for sleep not stopping for food. Just continuously going out during the day doing shop lifting, and then during the evening going out and burgling places. And just continuously either committing an offence or smoking’ ... |
‘Crack is a social killer, none of my family want to know me’ |
‘you get up you rob, you score, you rob again, you score some more’ |
Crack and prostitution |
‘I worked as a prostitute to fund my habit’ |
‘The dealers and it is usually black guys not being funny or racists, but they tell you they love you and lead you up the garden path make you ill and then start threatening you when you haven’t got the money that they want’ |
‘Yeah you are out on the streets, one to keep your habit going and two to keep them off your back ...’ |
Progression to crack |
‘It starts off in my experience, someone starts smoking cannabis, he will go from cannabis to either LSD or speed, ecstasy and then they go onto hard drugs heroin and crack. Everyone says that is where it starts, cannabis all the time, everyone I know. ... it is because it is you get into that group of people who know where to get other drugs from’. |
Complex drug use |
‘Yeah I have got a heroin addiction ... I used a lot of crack and I used the smack to come down off crack, and ... I became addicted to heroin’ |
Crack life |
‘I have been on sessions and missions that have lasted like four or five weeks non stop, not stopping for nothing, not stopping for sleep not stopping for food. Just continuously going out during the day doing shop lifting, and then during the evening going out and burgling places. And just continuously either committing an offence or smoking’ ... |
‘Crack is a social killer, none of my family want to know me’ |
‘you get up you rob, you score, you rob again, you score some more’ |
Crack and prostitution |
‘I worked as a prostitute to fund my habit’ |
‘The dealers and it is usually black guys not being funny or racists, but they tell you they love you and lead you up the garden path make you ill and then start threatening you when you haven’t got the money that they want’ |
‘Yeah you are out on the streets, one to keep your habit going and two to keep them off your back ...’ |
Lack of substitute |
‘I have lived all over the place, they have always got a like treatment for heroin addicts, but there is nothing for crack ... they don’t recognize it, I don’t know, maybe they just don’t bother I don’t know’ |
‘for heroin .... There is subutex the blocker. But for crack there is nothing like that’. |
‘A blocker which means once you have got it, if you take crack ... it wouldn’t do anything’ |
‘You can’t get a substitute for crack’ |
‘Everyone would want it if there was a substitute’ |
What helps? |
‘make sure we keep occupied she would try and find things that we could do, like education and things because a lot of us have too much time’ |
‘... it is the having things to do and keep my time occupied. But if I was bored I would just want any drug no matter what’ |
‘... a daily routine, they have really put me back in my life’ |
‘A lot of it is boredom as well isn’t it once you stop taking drugs you have got nothing else to do have you’. |
‘Yes you need you need something else to fill in your time instead of just changing from one drug to another, you need something to occupy your mind and to focus on. And they don’t offer any alternative you know help after that no aftercare, and aftercare is what they should be looking at more so’ |
On the use of ex-users in the rehabilitation process |
‘... someone that can empathize, somebody that’s been there, someone who has had a crack problem or heroin problem that, he has been there, he has been through all the shit’ |
‘One of the best people to help would be an ex user ... because they know what you have been through and that, ... because they are ex crack users at the end of the day’ |
‘The worst part of the key workers, they have no actual experience of going through the heroin’ |
‘If you talk to a counsellor who is an addict, the counsellor can share his experience and what happened to him and what it was like. So not only you have the rapport there straight away, because he has already tell you his story, he has already confided in you before you have even opened your mouth and told him when you come from. And not only that he can tell you how to recover as well, do you know what I mean, stage by stage, day by day all the way up to recovery. Not just talking to somebody step by step in the text book’ |
‘There is definitely a resentment from the people that are trying to recover towards the people that are trying to give them help, because they can’t empathize with them, because they are not actual drug users, they are seen as getting their knowledge from the book, text book junkies is the phrase’ |
Lack of substitute |
‘I have lived all over the place, they have always got a like treatment for heroin addicts, but there is nothing for crack ... they don’t recognize it, I don’t know, maybe they just don’t bother I don’t know’ |
‘for heroin .... There is subutex the blocker. But for crack there is nothing like that’. |
‘A blocker which means once you have got it, if you take crack ... it wouldn’t do anything’ |
‘You can’t get a substitute for crack’ |
‘Everyone would want it if there was a substitute’ |
What helps? |
‘make sure we keep occupied she would try and find things that we could do, like education and things because a lot of us have too much time’ |
‘... it is the having things to do and keep my time occupied. But if I was bored I would just want any drug no matter what’ |
‘... a daily routine, they have really put me back in my life’ |
‘A lot of it is boredom as well isn’t it once you stop taking drugs you have got nothing else to do have you’. |
‘Yes you need you need something else to fill in your time instead of just changing from one drug to another, you need something to occupy your mind and to focus on. And they don’t offer any alternative you know help after that no aftercare, and aftercare is what they should be looking at more so’ |
On the use of ex-users in the rehabilitation process |
‘... someone that can empathize, somebody that’s been there, someone who has had a crack problem or heroin problem that, he has been there, he has been through all the shit’ |
‘One of the best people to help would be an ex user ... because they know what you have been through and that, ... because they are ex crack users at the end of the day’ |
‘The worst part of the key workers, they have no actual experience of going through the heroin’ |
‘If you talk to a counsellor who is an addict, the counsellor can share his experience and what happened to him and what it was like. So not only you have the rapport there straight away, because he has already tell you his story, he has already confided in you before you have even opened your mouth and told him when you come from. And not only that he can tell you how to recover as well, do you know what I mean, stage by stage, day by day all the way up to recovery. Not just talking to somebody step by step in the text book’ |
‘There is definitely a resentment from the people that are trying to recover towards the people that are trying to give them help, because they can’t empathize with them, because they are not actual drug users, they are seen as getting their knowledge from the book, text book junkies is the phrase’ |
Lack of substitute |
‘I have lived all over the place, they have always got a like treatment for heroin addicts, but there is nothing for crack ... they don’t recognize it, I don’t know, maybe they just don’t bother I don’t know’ |
‘for heroin .... There is subutex the blocker. But for crack there is nothing like that’. |
‘A blocker which means once you have got it, if you take crack ... it wouldn’t do anything’ |
‘You can’t get a substitute for crack’ |
‘Everyone would want it if there was a substitute’ |
What helps? |
‘make sure we keep occupied she would try and find things that we could do, like education and things because a lot of us have too much time’ |
‘... it is the having things to do and keep my time occupied. But if I was bored I would just want any drug no matter what’ |
‘... a daily routine, they have really put me back in my life’ |
‘A lot of it is boredom as well isn’t it once you stop taking drugs you have got nothing else to do have you’. |
‘Yes you need you need something else to fill in your time instead of just changing from one drug to another, you need something to occupy your mind and to focus on. And they don’t offer any alternative you know help after that no aftercare, and aftercare is what they should be looking at more so’ |
On the use of ex-users in the rehabilitation process |
‘... someone that can empathize, somebody that’s been there, someone who has had a crack problem or heroin problem that, he has been there, he has been through all the shit’ |
‘One of the best people to help would be an ex user ... because they know what you have been through and that, ... because they are ex crack users at the end of the day’ |
‘The worst part of the key workers, they have no actual experience of going through the heroin’ |
‘If you talk to a counsellor who is an addict, the counsellor can share his experience and what happened to him and what it was like. So not only you have the rapport there straight away, because he has already tell you his story, he has already confided in you before you have even opened your mouth and told him when you come from. And not only that he can tell you how to recover as well, do you know what I mean, stage by stage, day by day all the way up to recovery. Not just talking to somebody step by step in the text book’ |
‘There is definitely a resentment from the people that are trying to recover towards the people that are trying to give them help, because they can’t empathize with them, because they are not actual drug users, they are seen as getting their knowledge from the book, text book junkies is the phrase’ |
Lack of substitute |
‘I have lived all over the place, they have always got a like treatment for heroin addicts, but there is nothing for crack ... they don’t recognize it, I don’t know, maybe they just don’t bother I don’t know’ |
‘for heroin .... There is subutex the blocker. But for crack there is nothing like that’. |
‘A blocker which means once you have got it, if you take crack ... it wouldn’t do anything’ |
‘You can’t get a substitute for crack’ |
‘Everyone would want it if there was a substitute’ |
What helps? |
‘make sure we keep occupied she would try and find things that we could do, like education and things because a lot of us have too much time’ |
‘... it is the having things to do and keep my time occupied. But if I was bored I would just want any drug no matter what’ |
‘... a daily routine, they have really put me back in my life’ |
‘A lot of it is boredom as well isn’t it once you stop taking drugs you have got nothing else to do have you’. |
‘Yes you need you need something else to fill in your time instead of just changing from one drug to another, you need something to occupy your mind and to focus on. And they don’t offer any alternative you know help after that no aftercare, and aftercare is what they should be looking at more so’ |
On the use of ex-users in the rehabilitation process |
‘... someone that can empathize, somebody that’s been there, someone who has had a crack problem or heroin problem that, he has been there, he has been through all the shit’ |
‘One of the best people to help would be an ex user ... because they know what you have been through and that, ... because they are ex crack users at the end of the day’ |
‘The worst part of the key workers, they have no actual experience of going through the heroin’ |
‘If you talk to a counsellor who is an addict, the counsellor can share his experience and what happened to him and what it was like. So not only you have the rapport there straight away, because he has already tell you his story, he has already confided in you before you have even opened your mouth and told him when you come from. And not only that he can tell you how to recover as well, do you know what I mean, stage by stage, day by day all the way up to recovery. Not just talking to somebody step by step in the text book’ |
‘There is definitely a resentment from the people that are trying to recover towards the people that are trying to give them help, because they can’t empathize with them, because they are not actual drug users, they are seen as getting their knowledge from the book, text book junkies is the phrase’ |
Crack/cocaine use
Most people were introduced to crack through their other drug use. Participants described a drug ladder from cannabis, through other drugs, to finally heroin and crack use. Crack/cocaine and heroin use were entwined. Crack/cocaine was generally available from the same dealers who provided them with heroin. The women-only group described a link between prostitution and crack use. Most had been introduced to crack through dealers who posed as boyfriends and, once dependent, were subject to demands for payment for the drug. Commercial sex work was then used to fund their drug habit. All participants describe a hectic and chaotic lifestyle, referred to as a ‘24/7 crack-life’, revolving around drug use, crime or prostitution. In all the groups, crack/cocaine use was seen as more likely to lead to risky or extreme behaviour than other drugs.
Treatment services
Most participants believed that there was no help currently available for crack/cocaine dependence. The general belief was that clinical treatment services were able to deal with heroin dependence but had little to offer for crack dependence. They were critical of the accessibility and flexibility of existing treatment services to help with crack/cocaine dependence.
One of the main issues identified was the lack of a suitable substitute for crack/cocaine or one that could block the cravings or effects of crack/cocaine. Because crack/cocaine users described a life revolving around their need to ‘feed the habit’, participants reported a need to occupy their time, filling in the gap left by their drug use. As a result, users valued services that could facilitate their involvement in activities, training and assistance into employment or that offered help with practical problems such as housing, benefit advice and personal or family issues. Social and personal skills training, including anger management, was also seen as important in the rehabilitation process.
Another theme that emerged strongly was the value placed on involving ex-users in the support and care of those attempting to come off drugs, as they are seen as people that users can relate to and who can better understand their needs. This was identified as a gap in current service provision.
Discussion
Main findings of this study
This study has already reported an estimated prevalence of problem drug use of 2% in the population aged 15–54 years in Norfolk.13 Two-thirds of the respondents used crack/cocaine, almost one-third of the respondents reported moderate or severe dependence on crack/cocaine, and 8% reported using it as their main drug. The study found no variability in the prevalence of moderate or severe dependence among those from clinical treatment agencies versus those from non-treatment agencies, which suggests that the prevalence estimate is applicable to all ‘known’ drug users. If these proportions are applied to the Norfolk population estimate of problem drug use, this would represent a prevalence of 1.2% (i.e. approximately 4900 people) in people aged 15–54 years for crack/cocaine use or 0.6% (i.e. approximately 2450 people) for moderate or severe crack/cocaine dependence. The latter assumes that the hidden population of drug users in Norfolk are using drugs in a similar way to those attending drug services. In reality, it could be argued that those not attending services may be less chaotic and use less crack/cocaine. Alternatively, it may be that as treatment services are considered to focus almost exclusively on opiate addiction (as exemplified by the data from our focus groups), use of crack/cocaine is in fact likely to be greater amongst the problem drug use population not seen within treatment services.
All the groups highlighted the progression to crack/cocaine from other drugs, often describing a ‘drug ladder’ from cannabis through other drugs finally to heroin and crack/cocaine. Similar findings have been reported in large urban areas.20,21 This was also consistent with the survey finding that crack use was associated with multiple other drug use, suggesting that tackling drug problems early on may prevent progression to use of crack/cocaine.
It was also observed in both the survey and focus group findings that there was an association between crack/cocaine dependence and prostitution. The focus groups highlighted the high financial cost of crack use and the need for users to undertake acquisitive crime or sex work to fund their habit. As a result of this risk-taking behaviour, an increased prevalence of HIV and other blood-borne viruses among crack/cocaine users would be expected. In the study sample, it was found that patients with dependence on crack/cocaine had twice the self-reported prevalence of hepatitis B and C compared with those not dependent, though this was only statistically significant for hepatitis C, while the prevalence of HIV was similar in both groups. Our survey may however have underestimated the prevalence of these infections because of the non-response to these questions in about half of the sample.
What is already known on this topic
Few studies have quantified the prevalence of crack/cocaine use, and these have mainly focused on large urban areas. A recent study found a prevalence of crack use in London of 1.3% of the population aged 15–44 years.22 Our study’s estimated prevalence of crack/cocaine use would appear similar to that found in London, higher than may have been anticipated for a rural county. Several studies have commented on a link between crack use and sex work and polydrug use.4,5,20,23 These risk behaviours lead to increased rates of sexually transmitted infections, HIV and other blood-borne viruses found with crack/cocaine use in previous studies.6,7
What this study adds
This is the first study that quantifies the prevalence and level of dependence on crack/cocaine in a rural setting in the United Kingdom. Normally, research reports state only the main drug of abuse. This may underestimate the importance of crack/cocaine, particularly if drug users perceive that treatment will only be provided to those with opiate problems. In this study sample of drug users, the majority used heroin as the main drug. However, two-thirds of the respondents used crack cocaine, and almost a third did so in a way suggestive of moderate-to-severe dependence.
The focus group discussions with crack/cocaine users shed some light on the problems faced by these users; where, in most cases, participants described a ‘crack life’ revolving around drug use and acquisitive crime or prostitution. However, when crack users enter treatment, they value the involvement in activities that can fill the gap left by abandoning the hectic and chaotic life they used to lead.
Limitations of this study
The proportion of drug users dependent on crack and cocaine was estimated using a questionnaire survey. The sample obtained was smaller than intended; nevertheless, the confidence intervals around our estimate of dependence are reasonably narrow. It should be noted that one survey question asking respondents to report their main drug was poorly completed (completed by 68% of respondents). This appeared to be due to the question’s position and phrasing. Of those who did respond, 8% reported that their main drug was crack/cocaine, in line with national findings.12 The primary aim was however to determine the proportion of respondents whose drug use suggested moderate or severe dependence on crack/cocaine. Drug dependence questions were answered by all respondents.
The survey response rate was generally very high where recorded, but no response rate information was available from the four sites. It is possible that those surveyed did not adequately represent the population of problem drug users in the community. In particular, the widespread belief that treatment services cannot help those with crack/cocaine addiction may have biased in the direction of underestimating prevalence. Conversely, as severe dependence is related to polydrug use, this may have resulted in a larger proportion of crack/cocaine users accessing treatment services for other drugs, leading to a biased overestimate.
The focus groups were conducted with a self-selected sample of current and ex-users of crack/cocaine and are likely to have over-represented urban users, as the groups were organized in Norwich and Great Yarmouth. Also, as people with serious crack/cocaine problems are more likely to have more chaotic lifestyles, it is possible that the current user groups have attracted those users who had a more stable lifestyle.
In conclusion, this study demonstrates that estimates provided by reports of users’ main drug would appear to seriously underestimate the scale of the crack/cocaine problem. Furthermore, current service provision appears to provide inadequate help to crack users. As there is no current ‘substitute’ or ‘blocker’ to crack/cocaine, users require other forms of treatment. Successful treatment programmes should consider incorporating, as suggested by participants in our focus groups, a wide range of activities and interventions to provide structure to their daily life. Learning from ex-users was perceived to be an important component of this treatment. Further research is needed to determine the best methods of delivering acceptable and effective treatment services to this at-risk population.
Funding
This work was funded by a grant from the Norfolk Drug Action Team.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Clive Rennie (Norwich PCT), Xany Oliver (Norfolk Drug Action Team) managers and staff of Norfolk NHS Drug Treatment Services, Norfolk Constabulary, Norfolk Probation, Norfolk Tier 3 Youth Services, Norfolk Voluntary Agencies working with substance misusers, survey respondents and participants of the focus groups.
References
Shooting up: infections among injecting drug users in the United Kingdom 2004. An update, October 2005.
The Unlinked Anonymous Prevalence Monitoring Programme (UAPMP). Health Protection Agency, 24-11-2005, 10-1-2006.
Drug Treatment Monitoring Unit (SE(W)&Eastern). Annual Report 2001/02. Norfolk Drug Action Team, Public Health Resource Unit, Institute of Health Sciences, 2002.