Attitudes of current health care providers

The quality and accessibility of abortion services are influenced by health care provider attitudes to abortion. Not surprisingly, there are international, regional and professional variations in attitudes to abortion. Comparisons need to be treated cautiously because of different approaches to survey administration.

Reported rates of opposition to abortion ranged from a high of 35% in rural physicians in Idaho, USA, who opposed abortion because of religious beliefs and community opposition,31 compared to the majority of practising midwives and gynaecologists in Sweden supporting abortion.32 Around 20% of practising general practitioners (GPs) surveyed in the UK were anti-abortion,33 although 60% of supporters believed the law should be liberalised to give women the right to choose an abortion without restriction or reason.33

Moral opposition to abortion

Several studies explored provider attitudes towards abortion and abortion law.31–33 Of British GPs surveyed, 20% with anti-abortion beliefs felt they should not have to declare this to a woman seeking access to abortion services.33 Similarly, over 35% of rural physicians surveyed from Idaho, USA reported a moral opposition to abortion and unwillingness to refer to another provider.31 As only 2/114 family physicians surveyed perform surgical abortions it was not surprising that 80% of physicians in this study had moral objections to abortion. Reasons for not providing abortion services were religious and community opposition.31

Negative attitudes of non-physician staff restricted access to abortion.34 ,35 One study reported an unwillingness of nurses to deliver abortion services.34 Another identified staff conflicts and service delivery barriers amongst operating theatre nurses or anaesthetists unwilling to provide abortion services in rural hospitals in the USA.35 Additionally, staff attitudes impacted negatively on the women's experiences of abortion services.36 ,37 More than 10% of Canadian women said that staff at abortion clinics were rude,37 and almost half of women surveyed reported a lack of support from the physician and clinical team.36

Conscientious objection was specifically explored in three studies of health professionals.38–40 Some GPs in Norway reported ambivalence towards their own refusal practices related to a non-absolutist conscientious objection stance illustrated by willingness to make certain compromises to refer women.39 Although most physicians surveyed in the USA did not report an objection to abortion in general, abortion for gender selection was not supported by 75% of participants.38 Obstetricians and gynaecologists in the USA asked to comment on a vignette of a physician's refusal of a requested medical abortion found that whilst almost half the participants supported the conscientious refusal by the vignette doctor, support decreased when the doctor disclosed objections to patients, particularly for male participants.40

Future health care providers

Eight studies explored the attitudes of future service providers towards abortion.38 ,41–47 Attitudes were generally positive, with pro-choice attitudes, willingness to provide abortion services, for the service to be expanded to non-physicians and to attend training programmes reported.38 ,41–46

In California, around a quarter of licensed advanced practice clinicians wanted training to be able to provide medical abortion.43 Almost half the trainee medical residents surveyed from the San Francisco Bay area indicated willingness to provide medical abortion but 35% of trainee gynaecologists, 74% of family practitioners and 84% of internists were concerned about inadequate backup access to vacuum aspiration services. Predictors of positive attitudes included a belief that mifepristone was very safe and that women needed the service.44

In one study over 60% of medical students surveyed in the UK were pro-choice. Their beliefs correlated positively with willingness to be involved in abortion procedures.46 Two studies on medical students’ attitudes in the UK found that most supported the right to conscientious objection which was higher in Muslim students compared to other religious groups,4,8 and despite an objection to abortion few were unwilling to perform the procedure.38

Abortion on demand was acceptable to almost 90% of Norwegian medical students surveyed. More favourable attitudes were apparent in the final years of training compared to first-year students, when 27% wanted to exercise their right to conscientious objection.48

A comparison of the abortion attitudes of medical students in Northern Ireland and Norway found significant differences. Almost 80% of Norwegian students were pro-abortion compared to less than 15% in Northern Ireland, reflecting differences in religious, legal and educational experiences.45

Costs of travel

The direct and indirect costs of travel – including time away from work or studies; extended arrangements for child care; transport, accommodation and cost of meals; poor continuity of care and significant time away from home – were identified in four studies.37 ,49–51

Cost of abortion procedure

The cost of abortion procedures was identified as a barrier in four studies.2 ,37 ,52 ,53 Almost 20% of Canadian women who accessed an abortion clinic reported that the fees were too high.37 One study specifically explored the experiences of Medicaid abortion coverage and the impact on low-income abortion clients54 and another study explored women's experiences of accessing subsidised insurance funds for abortion.55 In the USA, hospital-based abortions cost around six times that of non-hospital abortions and increase sharply beyond a gestational age of 12 weeks. Almost 75% of women self-fund their abortions.2 Research undertaken in 15 USA states revealed that in only two states were 97% of submitted claims funded, and women with low incomes experienced significant challenges to access affordable and timely care.54 Women who qualify for Medicaid have delays in reimbursement, which sometimes prohibits them from accessing abortion.5,6 Delays in accessing resulted in an inability to access an abortion; later abortions for some women; and inability to access a medical abortion.55

In the USA in 2008, medical abortion at 10 weeks was reported to be more expensive than surgical abortion except in facilities with smaller caseloads that possibly specialised in medical abortion and charged more for surgical abortion because of training and equipment.52 Conversely, possible reasons for higher fees for medical abortion were linked to the ‘newer technology’ and high cost of the drugs.52

Appointment availability

Lack of appointment availability for abortion services was reported in three Canadian studies37 ,53 ,56 and number of abortion centres contacted was reported in one French study.36 More than 35% of Canadian women reported that no appointments were available when they first contacted the abortion service, which caused critical inconvenience.37 However, a 1992 study of non-hospital abortion providers found that the time between first contact with the service and the receipt of the abortion was quite short, 50% within 4 days.56 A Canadian study reported that waiting times for an abortion are significantly shorter in private clinics than for government-funded services, and 85% of women said that they would be willing to pay for an earlier abortion.53

Choice of facility or setting

Five studies explored women's preferences for different models of abortion services.11 ,36 ,56–58 Women in Chicago and New York, USA were asked to specify their service location preference for a first-trimester abortion. The majority (60%) preferred to see a doctor at a primary care clinic because they were comfortable with their known provider and the doctor was familiar with their medical history. Women who expressed a preference for an abortion at a dedicated clinic listed reasons such as “specialisation”, “privacy and anonymity” when the procedure is “separate” from the usual source of care.57 In a survey of a clinical sample of women in New York, the majority (87%) expressed a preference for receiving a medication abortion from their primary care doctor.11 Another study found some women choose to travel for anonymity, lower fees or to access a surgical abortion which might not be available locally.56 One study compared women's provider preferences (GP or obstetrician/gynaecologist) and abortion methods.58 Most women expressed a preference for an obstetrician/gynaecologist; however, the choice of abortion method was the main predictor of service preference.5,9

Provision of medical termination via telemedicine

A study in Iowa, USA explored provider acceptability of the provision of telemedicine for medical abortion.59 Staff cited benefits such as greater reach of physicians, greater efficiency of resources, reduced travel, fewer cancellations due to travel and weather, greater appointment availability and location, and the ability to better meet time deadlines with narrow timeframes. A follow-up study comparing service delivery patterns before and after the introduction of telemedicine provision of medical abortion found an overall decrease in the abortion rate but an increase in the number of medical abortions and abortions before 13 weeks’ gestation for women who lived more than 50 miles from the clinic.60

One study compared the effectiveness and acceptability of medical abortion via telemedicine with standard, face-to-face care.61 Both models were comparable in relation to clinical outcomes and satisfaction. Factors that influenced women's decisions to have a medical abortion via telemedicine included a desire for a medical termination (71%), as early as possible (94%) and closer to home (69%). A qualitative analysis of the same telemedicine setting found that telemedicine was generally acceptable for medical termination as it reduced the need to travel, thereby reducing costs and enabling earlier access to the abortion.59 Over 80% of women interviewed in New York at an internal medicine practice stated the importance of the availability of medical abortions, and if it was an option over 87% would consider having a medical abortion at the clinic.62

Availability and acceptability of medical abortion

Three studies explored the acceptability of medical abortion.4 ,59 ,62 In a study of acceptability of mifepristone before it was approved for general usage, more than a third of women said they would choose mifepristone if it was available.62 Women perceived it could increase anonymity of abortion as it can be between the provider and the woman.62 Despite few physicians providing abortion services in Iowa, USA, around one-quarter said they would prescribe mifepristone if it became available.31 Some 25% of licensed advanced clinicians in the USA were interested in receiving medical abortion training.4,4

Gestational limits

This review focused on women's access to first-trimester abortion, up to 12 weeks’ gestation. Most of the studies identified gestational limits only with regard to early- or late-stage abortion with minimal barriers to first-trimester abortion reported in four studies.2 ,37 ,41 ,52 In the USA, although 98% of the facilities provided services to women up to and including 8 weeks’ gestation, fewer than half provide services at 13 weeks and many set limits between 11 and 12 weeks.2 In Canada limits are more stringent, and only 36% of provider hospitals perform abortions up to a maximum gestational age of 12 weeks.37

Lack of services in rural areas

Nine studies explored geographical obstacles to care and travel undertaken by women to access abortion providers.37 ,49–51 ,56 ,59 ,63 ,64 Women travel between 1 and 12 hours to access services. More than 15% of women in Canada travelled between 101 and 1000 kilometres to access an abortion provider.37 Young women,37 ,50 indigenous women49 and women on low incomes are disproportionately affected.37 Women who travel are more likely to have an abortion later than 12 weeks’ gestation compared to those who do not travel.64 However, the introduction of medical abortion via telemedicine was found to increase rates of medical abortion among women living more than 50 miles from the nearest clinic offering surgical abortion.60

The reasons that women in rural areas travel include: insufficient services in their local area; lack of doctors willing to perform abortions; confidentiality;49–51 to access a provider who charges lower fees; or to access surgical abortion.56

Provider experience

The initial service contact was also found to influence women's subsequent access to abortion.36 ,53 Women who first contacted a private gynaecologist, the most common situation in France, were more likely to be referred directly to the abortion service and experienced fewer time delays compared to women who first accessed their GP.36 Less educated women who first accessed a GP had lengthier delays before accessing an abortion.36 Although most Canadian women were referred to an abortion service by a physician, the results of qualitative interviews revealed that this was distressing for some women and caused interference to access for self-referral.53 Ninety percent of French women contacted only one abortion service where they subsequently had their abortion.36

Harassment of women and providers

Harassment of staff and women is a well-known barrier to providing and accessing abortion services.2 ,43 ,52 ,63 ,65 ,66 Of all the abortion providers surveyed in the USA, 57% of non-hospital providers experienced anti-abortion harassment in 2008.52 Harassment was much higher in conservative rural areas such as the mid-West and Southern states.2 ,52

Actual or potential harassment influences hospital and provider willingness to provide abortions.65 One in five advanced clinicians identified fear of anti-abortion harassment as a perceived barrier to offering medical abortion.65 In rural Canada, harassment and stigma were the main reason for the resignation of doctors and nurses providing abortion services.35 Of the 163 provider and non-provider hospitals in Ontario, Canada almost half the provider hospitals reported experiencing harassment and 15% of physicians stated that harassment directly contributed to staff unwillingness to perform abortions.65 Rural providers reported having to “fly under the radar” in small communities.63

While harassment rates have generally declined since 2000,2 the majority of abortion clinics (88%) and providers (61%) reported some harassment in 2008.52 The most common form of harassment was picketing.2 ,52

Only one Canadian study reported harassment of women seeking access to an abortion clinic. Women who accessed an abortion provider were concerned for their safety because of anti-abortion protestors.37

Lack of availability of, and barriers to, delivery of medical abortion

Five studies identify lack of availability of medical abortion in the USA, Canada and New Zealand35 ,49 ,52 ,63 ,67 and one explored barriers to the provision of medical abortion in the USA.43

In the USA between 2001 and 2008, only 13% of facilities offered medical abortion in 2008 and most were offered at free-standing clinics (82%).67 Rates of medical termination were lower in black and Hispanic populations.67 In the USA, from 2001 to 2008 the number of hospitals and physician offices providing medical abortions decreased by 9% and 13%, respectively, whilst the number of non-specialised clinics increased by 23%.52

In Canada, medical abortions accounted for 15% of all abortions in 2011.63 In New Zealand, although medical termination was approved in 2001, only four clinics within 16 council regions offered this option in 2006.49

One study reported barriers identified by nurse practitioners, physicians’ assistants and certified nurse-midwives that would potentially influence the provision of medical abortion, if they were able to offer this as part of their role.43 Barriers included lack of training opportunities, uncertainty around legal restrictions, abortion not permitted by the facility, lack of physician backup and the increased cost of malpractice insurance.43

Insufficient resources: lack of training, too few physicians, lack of hospital facilities

Six studies examined the resource issues influencing the delivery of abortion services;37 ,52 ,64 ,65 two focused specifically on rural issues.35 ,63 Lack of training, too few physicians and lack of hospital facilities were identified as factors limiting provision of abortion services.

Ferris et al.65 found only half the hospitals had physicians who performed abortions in Ontario, Canada and almost one-third of physicians from these provider hospitals identified barriers to service delivery including limited operating room time, lack of availability of beds and too few physicians. Since the research was undertaken, hospital restructuring in Ontario has reduced the number of provider hospitals, further reducing abortion services.65 Ageing providers combined with lack of training opportunities contribute to a lack of providers in Canada.37

Jones and Kooistra52 point out that in the USA, one-third of women of reproductive age live in 87% of counties that lack providers.5,3 Dobie et al.64 report a decade-long decline in the number of abortion providers in Washington State.65

Two Canadian studies highlight the lack of abortion service provision in rural areas and obstacles for rural providers: lack of staff, high demand for services, professional isolation and lack of replacement options.35 ,63